Why Is It
Endangered?
The Guam Kingfisher (Todiramphus
cinnamominus), was once an endemic species
throughout the tropical forest habitats in Palau, Guam.
Currently the population is down to 124 in various U.S. zoos
(Canberra Times, 2003). The species is close to extinction from the introduction of the Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis). The Brown treesnake was introduced during the beginning of WWII through ship and plane cargo. Once the snake inhabited the island, its population grew to the millions due to the lack of competition between native snake species, and lack of predators (Canberra Times, 2003). The snake alone has not only caused the Guam Kingfisher to suffer from a major population crash causing it to be nearly extinct, but several other bird and lizard species as well. It wasn’t until several decades after the snake’s introduction that scientists were able to connect the loss of the kingfisher with these invasive snakes (Fong, 2012).
The government has tried various methods to control the snakes such as detector dogs, traps, nighttime fence searches, oral toxicants, barriers, prey reduction and public outreach activities (U.S. DOI, 2015). The total cost of these programs is about $3,000,000 annually and just recently increased by $500,000 by this year (U.S. DOI, 2015). There are roughly 2,745,400 brown tree snakes found in Guam (50 snakes/hectare x 54908 hectares on Guam). The United States Department of Agriculture traps more than 6,000 snakes a year around commercial and military airfields on Guam. But the island is very large and there are too many snakes for trapping to do anything more than temporarily reduce a local population of the snake species. A prime snake habitat may hold 14,000 snakes per square mile (Fong,
Feeding Baby Kingfisher
in Captivity
Photo Credit:
Zbigniew Bzdak/Chicago Tribune
2012). This is one of the highest snake densities in the world (U.S. DOI, 2015). The current economic circumstances of Guam make controlling the Brown-tree population seem impossible and the hope for the return of the Guam Kingfisher unbelievable. The Guam Kingfisher's population will remain low until the Brown tree snake population is wiped clean from the island of Guam, however, until that happens the only hope for the bird is conservation efforts in captivity.
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H.I.P.P.C.O.
HIPPCO is an acronym for many different meanings for each letter of the word. Each letter represents a way the environment is affected by succession and evolution. They are listed in order of greatest to least affect.
sunny forest rather than a cool, dark one. Another factor affecting the environment is the encroachment of urbanization from the expanding population poses as a major threat to the ecosystem resources which are already stressed by legacy impacts and existing population pressure. The rainforest, once home to the Guam Kingfisher, is being forested at a rapid rate. An incredible 42.87% of Guam is forest yet only 2.18% of that is protected by IUCN, the rest is open to logging and other use of the natural resources (Butler, 2006).
Ecosystems Destroyed
by Degragation
Photo Credit:
Juat Ying/National University of Singapore
The loss of the Guam Kingfisher and various native bird species of Guam is already changing the island's tree populations. Some pioneer tree species that are common on nearby islands are very rare in Guam's intact forests. The native trees that are highly shade intolerant chances of reaching gaps are low because of bird loss, and they can't get a foothold outside the gaps because it is too dark, it’s expected that the tree populations will decline.
Even more concerning than the local decline of some tree species is the possibility that the bird’s loss may change the overall structure of the forest (Boyd, 2013). If seeds from the quick-growing pioneer trees cannot make it to the treefall gaps, then the seedlings that do establish are likely to be slow-growing trees that take a long time to grow tall enough to fill the gap. If gaps stay open longer, there will be more gaps on the landscape, and a hot, open,
H
abitat Destruction
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Brown Treesnake
Photo Credit:
Isaac Chellman/Smithsonian
In the beginning of WWII, the introduction of the non-native species, the Brown treesnake to the island of Guam caused the extinction of the Guam Kingfisher in the wild, forcing to be kept in captive breeding programs in U.S. zoos. The snake was transported as a stowaway on a cargo ship transported to Admiralty Islands (near Papua New Guinea) by the U.S. military. The Brown tree snake is responsible for a 75% decline in Guam's biodiversity (Fong, 2012). Over the past two decades, this arboreal predator has caused the disappearance of nearly all of the native forest birds on Guam, including the extinction of the Guam Rail and the Micronesian Kingfisher. Nine of the eleven avifauna species present at the time of the Brown treesnake's introduction have since been extirpated. (Fong, 2012)
nvasive Species
I
Of the species that have become extinct, five were endemic at the species or subspecies level. The Brown treesnake has become established on Guam due to the absence of natural population controls and the abundance of vulnerable prey on the island. Additionally, because Guam is such a small, remote island, there are not only limited ways for prey to escape predation, but an inability for predators of the snake to enter. The snake begins to reproduce around age three and deposits up to twelve eggs once
a year in caves, hollow trees, and other areas protected from drying and overheating. Furthermore, the non-seasonal climate of Guam is favorable for the animal, which is an r-strategist species, allowing the snake to reproduce year-round. An active nocturnal species, the snake is most often found in densely foliated arboreal habitats. As a food generalist, the Brown treesnake has been reported to prey upon lizards, introduced and domestic birds, rats, geckos, skinks, and any otheravailable vertebrates. It can consume meals
70% of its body mass, an unusually large amount for a colubrid snake. Currently, there are up to 12,000 to 15,000 snakes per square mile on Guam. (Columbia Edu, 2001)
Various methods have been proposed for the removal of this problematic species, including barriers, traps with bait and attractants, biological controls, pathogens, and chemicals. Barriers are the most popularly used method for control and can be either temporary or permanent. Temporary barriers, which include nets and shade cloth, offer less protection and require more inspection than permanent barriers, but are less costly and easier to transport and build. Permanent barriers, on the other hand, include masonry, metal mesh, vinyl, and seawall, and are preferable in long-term protection situations. Currently on Guam, the Wildlife Service and the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Plant Inspection Service conducts snake trapping and night-time spotlight searches to reduce numbers in cargo areas. (Columbia Edu, 2001)
With the sudden boost in human population on Guam, the island faces major infrastructure demands. Already, 2 of the 7 water treatment plants in Guam, which handle approximately 60% of the wastewater, do not operate
in concordance with the Clean-Water Act. The remaining
40% of the island operate on septic systems, individual primary sewage treatment structures which allow solid wastes to accumulate within an underground tank before liquid waste is leached into surrounding drainage fields. These systems are often poorly maintained and prone to leaking when subjected to frequent heavy rainfall. As of July 2011, multiple beaches in 8 regions on Guam (including a collection site in this study) were closed to public use due to unsafe levels of infectious bacteria in the water (Guam EPA 2011). A recent indication of pollution on Guam was done on an experiment of mangroves done by Dr. Kiho Kim.
ollution
P
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CO2 Pollution on Mangroves
Photo Credit:
AGU American Geophysical Union
Mangroves serve as barriers against erosion, flooding, storm surges, and tsunamis, because of their ability to reduce wave energy and increase sedimentation rates. Mangrove forests are large carbon sinks, and their destruction might exacerbate global warming by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Historically, the greatest threats to mangroves were killing of the forests for development and conversion into aquaculture habitats. These stressors may not be as impacting as climate change effects, such as sea-level rise, an increase in extreme high water events, increased intensity and frequency of tropical storms, changes in global precipitation patterns, changes in temperatures, and increased atmospheric CO2 (Gilman 2008).
The experiment concluded that multiple streams throughout Guam were draining sewage, most likely from septic systems in the small upstream towns which then seeped into the ocean. The mangroves hold records of nutrient pollution that is occurring on the island not only in streams but in coastal waters. If the Guam Kingfisher were to be introduced, it would be wise to keep them away from the mangrove areas due the high threat of pollution that lies within the mangrove habitat.
The island’s population is said to grow over 10% by 2020 due to an increase in military presence, which raises the concern of infrastructure’s ability to keep up with new demands. Besides the military presence, the island also has low death rate and large numbers of immigrants from the Phillipines and South Korea. Tourism and the presence of the U.S. Military Base have changed the island’s agricultural patterns and development of land for hotels and tourist attractions. (Central Intelligence Agency, 2002).
Tourism is the most prominent source of Guam’s economy, with more than a million visitors arriving yearly to the island. There are several luxury hotels along Tumon Bay, near to the Kingfisher’s forest habitat that has now be deforested and degraded for tourist development. The U.S. Military Base located around the island include: a naval air station, a naval base with ship repair yard, communications centres, and a hospital. (Central Intelligence Agency, 2002)
Guam has become the commercial and population hub of the
P
opulation
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Guam Military Bases in 2013
Photo Credit:
Naval Computer Telecommunications Station Guam
Micronesian region, and is by far the most developed island in the area. Over two-thirds of the population lives in the capital, and more than 90% of the population lives in urban areas. (Central Intelligence Agency, 2002) With the island stretching approximately 212 miles, the Guam Kingfisher will be left with virtually no habitat within the island that has not or isn’t touched by the human population on Guam. (Central Intelligence Agency, 2002)
Guam has a uniquely vulnerable ecology. Being an oceanic island, Guam has moderate climate, one that would not preclude the colonization of most invading species. Guam already suffered from low density of birds than comparable to mainland prior to the biomass increase near the time period relatively close to the extinction of the Guam Kingfisher in the wild. With specific problem that relates to climate change and the Guam Kingfisher is the introduced Brown treesnake species which has thrived tremendously through the changes in tropical climate regardless of how disturbed the environment is by climate change. Whereas the Guam Kingfisher (if returned to the wild) and other native species on Guam have fallen susceptible to endangerment through the lack of coevolution and species diversity that was once present in Guam’s
ecosystem prior to the introduction of snakes. Guam lies between a climate belt and is periodically struck by tropical storms and typhoons, which are most frequent from June through December. An average of three tropical storms and one typhoon pass within 180 nautical miles (330 km) of Guam each year.
Since 1962, ten of thirteen major disaster declarations resulted from typhoons, and two of the other disasters were associated with climate. The most intense typhoon to pass over Guam recently was Super Typhoon Pongsona on December 8, 2002, with sustained winds of 125 miles per hour, leaving massive destruction as the oil tanks in Apra Harbor caught fire. (Central Intelligence Agency, 2002). The loss of harbor operations made response to the disaster more difficult. During disasters throughout Micronesia, people from atoll islands historically migrated to Guam because it usually has more food and water resources available. With increased future migration from the impacts of climate change, Guam’s resource needs may exceed its carrying capacity. Which means as climate change continues the population will continue to grow, which will lead to increase in deforestation, degradation of the Kingfisher’s habitat and humans exceeding the resources on the island.
limate Change
C
Guam after Super Typhoon, Ponsonga
Photo Credit:
Andrea Booher/Wikipedia
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Currently the Guam Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy is working to promote the recovery and sustainable use of Guam’s native terrestrial species, including the Guam Kingfisher, a species in need of the greatest conservation. One of the major threats when the Guam Kingfisher inhabited Guam was human exploitation. Since the species extinction from the wild, there have been actions taken to decrease the direct exploitation pressure (Biodiversity and Conservation, 1992).
U.S. is both an exporter and an importer, and is the largest market in the world for these items, importing and exporting about $1 billion worth of wildlife and wildlife products each year (out of a total world trade of $5 billion). Over 800,000 live bird species are currently on the market for U.S. wildlife imported species. Each year at least 8 million birds are taken from the wild for the international pet market, and the U.S. is one of the largest importers. An estimated 225,000 exotic birds are illegally imported into the U.S. every year (Biodiversity and Conservation, 1992). About half of the birds die during capture and holding. The pet trade has been responsible for the serious decline of at least 40 species in the wild.
criminal act to violate them. For example, in the United States, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) allows the Secretary of the Interior, through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, to exercise control over trade in wildlife. Under the ESA, a violation is a misdemeanor, with a maximum penalty of $20,000 and/or one year in prison. Illegal wildlife trade is rampant, and is estimated to make up between a quarter and a third of the total trade in wildlife and wildlife products. Even in the U.S., with better enforcement than most countries, illegal wildlife imports amount to $100 - $250 million per year (Biodiversity and Conservation, 1992).
verexploitation
O
Although there are international trade treaties like CITES, they do not have enforcement powers in stopping trade of these animals; they are implemented when a signatory nation passed laws making it a
Photo Credit:
World Wildlife Fund
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SPREAD THE WORD NOW!
Luckily, because the Guam Kingfisher is so rare and currently extinct from the wild it is impossible to capture this species and put a value on imports for them to be exotic pets. But, this doesn’t mean that the Kingfisher won’t face these dangerous situations once reintroduced into the wild. As the species becomes rarer it values can increase, which increases the hunting pressures.
How else can you help?
There are a bunch of different ways you can help out the Guam Kingfisher, and don't worry, not all of it involves donating money! Donate your time and volunteer! Sign a petition and ask your friends to do the same! The options are endless!